A noun names people, animals, plants, objects, and concepts. Countable nouns can be counted individually and have singular and plural forms (a cat – two cats), while uncountable nouns cannot be counted and do not have plural forms (water, sugar, time, information).

❌ an information, advices, breads ✅ some information, a piece of advice, a loaf of bread – uncountable nouns are counted using words like a piece of, a glass of, a bottle of.

📖 More: noun (noun) – description

The plural of countable nouns is most often formed by adding the suffix -s. After -s, -ss, -sh, -ch, -x, -z and often after -o we add -es, after a consonant + -y we change y to -ies, and some nouns have an irregular plural.

❌ childs, mans, peoples ✅ children, men, people

A and an are placed before a countable noun in the singular when we talk about something for the first time or about one of many things. A is placed before a word starting with a consonant sound, an – before a vowel sound.

• a dog, a book, a university (pronunciation: /juː/ – consonant)
• an apple, an egg, an hour (silent h – pronunciation starts with a vowel)
• She is a teacher. – She is a teacher (professions always with a/an).

❌ She is teacher. I have an car. ✅ She is a teacher. I have a car.

About the article the you will read in part B1.

Pronouns in the subject function (I, you, he, she, it, we, you, they) stand before the verb and perform the action. Pronouns in the object function (me, you, him, her, it, us, you, them) stand after the verb or preposition.

• She loves him. – Ona go kocha.
• Can you help us? – Możesz nam pomóc?
• This present is for them. – Ten prezent jest dla nich.

❌ Me and Tom went home. He likes she. ✅ Tom and I went home. He likes her.

📖 More: pronouns (zaimki) – description

The verb to be is used when we say who or what someone is, what they are like, where they are, how old they are, and how they feel. In English, every sentence must have a verb – where in Polish we omit „być”, in English be is necessary.

• I am a student. – I am a student.
• She is tall. – She is tall.
• We are hungry. – We are hungry.
• He is twelve. – He is twelve years old.
• They are at school. – They are at school.

❌ I have 12 years. I hungry. ✅ I am 12 (years old). I am hungry.

In the present tense, to be has three forms: am (I), is (he, she, it), and are (you, we, they). We form the negative by adding not after am/is/are, and the question by placing am/is/are before the subject.

• Is your brother at home? – No, he isn’t. – Is your brother at home? – No.
• Where are you from? – Where are you from?

❌ Yes, I’m. ✅ Yes, I am. – In short affirmative answers, we do not shorten.

Have and have got mean „to have” (to possess, to have siblings, traits, diseases). In the 3rd person singular, we say has / has got. With have got, we form negatives and questions without an operator (haven’t got, Have you got…?), and with have – with do/does (don’t have, Do you have…?).

Have got occurs only in the present tense. In the past, we say had: I had a dog when I was a child. In the meaning of actions (have breakfast, have a shower, have fun) we use only have: I have breakfast at 7.

❌ She have got a brother. Do you have got a pen? ✅ She has got a brother. Have you got a pen? / Do you have a pen?

To say that something belongs to someone, we add ’s to the owner, and after it, we place the possessed thing. When the noun in the plural ends with -s, we add just the apostrophe (’).

owner + ’s + possessed thing · plural ending in -s: owners + ’ + thing

• Tom’s car – Tom’s car
• my sister’s room – my sister’s room
• the children’s toys – children’s toys (irregular plural: ’s)
• my parents’ house – my parents’ house (plural ending in -s: just ’)

About things, we usually say with of: the end of the film – the end of the film.

❌ the car of Tom ✅ Tom’s car

The possessive adjective (my, your, his, her, its, our, their) always stands before the noun. The possessive pronoun (mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs) replaces the noun – there is no noun after it.

• This is my bike. This bike is mine. – This is my bike. This bike is mine.
• Is this your phone or hers? – Is this your phone or hers?

❌ This is mine book. The dog is eating it’s food. ✅ This is my book. The dog is eating its food. – it’s = it is.

This and these indicate things close to the speaker, while that and those indicate things further away. This and that are used with singular nouns, while these and those are used with plural nouns.

• This car is mine. – Ten samochód jest mój.
• Those shoes are expensive. – Tamte buty są drogie.
• This is my friend, Ola. – To jest moja koleżanka Ola (przedstawianie).

❌ This books are new. ✅ These books are new.

There is / there are says that something is or exists somewhere. There is stands before singular nouns and uncountable nouns, while there are stands before plural nouns. In a question, we place is/are before there.

There is / There are + what + where · question: Is there / Are there + what + where?

• There is a book on the table. – Na stole jest książka.
• There are some books in the bag. – W torbie są (jakieś) książki.
• There isn’t any milk in the fridge. – W lodówce nie ma mleka.
• Are there any shops near here? – Yes, there are. / No, there aren’t.

❌ On the table is a book. In my town are two parks. ✅ There is a book on the table. There are two parks in my town.

Prepositions of place (przyimki miejsca) specify the location of things: in (w), on (na), under (pod), next to (obok), behind (za), in front of (przed), between (pomiędzy), opposite (naprzeciwko), above (nad).

📖 More: prepositions (przyimki) – description

Can means “to be able to, can” – it expresses ability, possibility, and permission. It has one form for all persons, followed by the infinitive without to. The negation is cannot (can’t), and we form a question by placing can before the person.

person + can / can’t + infinitive · question: Can + person + infinitive?

• I can swim. – I can swim.
• She can’t play the guitar. – She can’t play the guitar.
• Can I open the window? – Yes, you can. – Can I open the window? – Yes.
• Can you help me? – Can you help me? (request)

❌ She cans swim. I can to swim. Do you can swim? ✅ She can swim. Can you swim?

The imperative mood is formed using the infinitive without to and without a person (Sit down!). The negation is formed by placing Don’t before it, and suggestions involving the speaker are made using Let’s.

• Open your books. – Open your books.
• Be quiet! – Be quiet!
• Don’t run! – Don’t run!
• Let’s go to the cinema. – Let’s go to the cinema.

❌ Not run! You don’t be late! ✅ Don’t run! Don’t be late!

Question words (question words) we place at the beginning of a detailed question: what (co), who (kto), where (gdzie), when (kiedy), why (dlaczego), how (jak), which (który), whose (czyj) and combinations with how (how many, how much, how often, how long).

Present Simple describes repeated actions and routines, preferences, permanent situations, laws of nature and facts, as well as timetables and schedules.

• I go to school every day. – I go to school every day (routine).
• She likes pizza. – She likes pizza (preference).
• They live in Mława. – They live in Mława (permanent situation).
• Water boils at 100°C. – Water boils at 100°C (fact).
• The bus leaves at 10. – The bus leaves at 10 (timetable).

📖 More: Present Simple – description of the tense

In an affirmative sentence, we use the base form of the verb, and in the 3rd person singular (he, she, it), we add -s/-es. Negatives are formed with don’t/doesn’t, and questions with do/does before the subject; after doesn’t and does, the verb returns to the base form.

Spelling of 3rd person: go – goes, watch – watches, fix – fixes, study – studies (consonant + y → -ies), but play – plays. Irregularly: have – has.

❌ He don’t like it. Does she likes tea? She play tennis. ✅ He doesn’t like it. Does she like tea? She plays tennis.

✍️ Practice: Present Simple exercises

Frequency adverbs (always, usually, often, sometimes, rarely, seldom, never) are placed before the main verb, but after the verb be. Expressions like every day, once a week, on Mondays are placed at the end or at the beginning of the sentence.

• I usually get up at 7. – Usually I get up at 7 (before the verb).
• She is always late. – She is always late (after be).
• We go swimming twice a week. – We go to the pool twice a week.

❌ I go always to school by bus. I don’t never eat meat. ✅ I always go to school by bus. I never eat meat. – never already has a negative meaning.

Present Continuous describes actions being performed at the moment of speaking, temporary and changing situations, and established plans for the near future. Typical indicators are now, at the moment, at present, today, this week.

• I am doing my homework now. – I am doing my homework now.
• She is living with her aunt this month. – She is living with her aunt this month (temporarily).
• Prices are going up. – Prices are going up (change).
• We are visiting Grandma on Sunday. – We are visiting Grandma on Sunday (plan).

📖 More: Present Continuous – description of the tense

Present Continuous is formed with the verb be (am/is/are) and the verb with the -ing ending. In the negative, we add not after am/is/are, and in the question, we move am/is/are before the subject.

Spelling -ing: make – making (silent -e drops), swim – swimming, sit – sitting (doubling the consonant after a short vowel), lie – lying.

❌ I reading now. She is swiming. ✅ I am reading now. She is swimming.

✍️ Practice: exercises with Present Continuous

Present Simple describes repeated actions, permanent situations, and facts, while Present Continuous describes actions happening now, temporary situations, and established plans for the near future.

• I work in a bank. – I work in a bank (permanently).
• I’m working from home this week. – I am working from home this week (temporarily).
• He usually drinks tea, but today he’s drinking coffee. – He usually drinks tea, but today he is drinking coffee.

✍️ Practice: exercises Present Simple vs Present Continuous

State verbs describe states, not actions – feelings (like, love, hate, want), thinking (know, understand, believe, remember), having (own, belong), and senses (seem, sound). We usually do not use them in Continuous tenses.

• ❌ I’m knowing the answer. ✅ I know the answer. – I know the answer.
• ❌ This bag is belonging to me. ✅ This bag belongs to me.

Some verbs change meaning and can then occur in Continuous:

• I think it’s a good idea. (I think) / I’m thinking about it. (I’m thinking)
• She has a car. (She has) / She’s having lunch. (She’s having)
• The soup tastes good. (The soup tastes) / He’s tasting the soup. (He’s tasting)

Some and any (some, a little) are placed before plural countable nouns and uncountable nouns. We use some in affirmative sentences and in offers and requests, while any is used in negatives (none, at all) and questions.

• I’ve got some apples. – I have (some) apples.
• We don’t have any time. – We don’t have (at all) time.
• Is there any milk? – Is there (any) milk?
• Would you like some tea? – Would you like some tea? (offer – some in the question)
• You can take any book. – You can take any book (any = whichever).

The same applies to compounds: something / anything, somebody / anybody, somewhere / anywhere.

❌ I haven’t got some money. ✅ I haven’t got any money.

Many and a few we connect with countable nouns in the plural, much and a little – with uncountable ones, and a lot of / lots of with both. Much and many are mainly used in questions and negatives.

• How many brothers have you got? – Ilu masz braci?
• We haven’t got much money. – Nie mamy dużo pieniędzy.
• I have a few friends here, so I’m not lonely. – Mam tu kilku przyjaciół, więc nie jestem samotny.

Past Simple describes actions and events that were completed at a specific moment in the past, as well as subsequent events in a narrative. Typical indicators are yesterday, last week, two days ago, in 2020, when I was a child.

• I washed my car yesterday. – Wczoraj umyłem samochód.
• We went to Italy last summer. – Zeszłego lata pojechaliśmy do Włoch.
• He got up, had breakfast and left. – He got up, had breakfast and left (sequence).

📖 More: Past Simple – description of the tense

In an affirmative sentence, we use the second form of the verb (regular: -ed, irregular: from the table), the same for all persons. We create a negation with didn’t, and a question with did before the subject – in both cases, the verb returns to its base form.

❌ I didn’t went. Did you saw it? ✅ I didn’t go. Did you see it?

✍️ Practice: Past Simple exercises · 📋 list of irregular verbs

The II form of regular verbs is formed by adding -ed. After a silent -e we add just -d, after a consonant + -y we change y to -ied, and after a short stressed vowel and one consonant we double that consonant (stop – stopped).

The same form -ed is also III form of regular verbs.

In Past Simple to be has two forms: was (I, he, she, it) and were (you, we, they). The negation is wasn’t / weren’t, and we form a question by placing was/were before the subject – without did.

• I was tired yesterday. – I was tired yesterday.
• Were you at school? – No, I wasn’t. – Were you at school? – No.

❌ Did you be at home? We was happy. ✅ Were you at home? We were happy.

Past Continuous describes an action that was ongoing at a specific moment in the past, several actions happening simultaneously, and a longer action interrupted by a shorter one (expressed in Past Simple). We also build the background of the story in Past Continuous.

• At 7 o’clock yesterday I was washing my car. – At 7 o’clock yesterday I was washing my car.
• I was cooking and my brother was reading. – I was cooking, and my brother was reading.
• I was walking home when I saw Tom. – I was walking home when I saw Tom.
• While we were having dinner, the phone rang. – While we were having dinner, the phone rang.

📖 More: Past Continuous – description of the tense

Past Continuous is formed with was/were and a verb with the -ing ending. In the negative, we add not (wasn’t/weren’t), and in the question, we place was/were before the subject.

❌ I was sleep when you called. ✅ I was sleeping when you called.

Adverbs of manner tell us how something is done. We form them from adjectives by adding -ly (slow – slowly); after a consonant + -y we write -ily (easy – easily), and adjectives ending in -ic get -ally. A few adverbs are irregular: good – well, fast – fast, hard – hard, late – late.

• She is a careful driver. She drives carefully. – She is a careful driver. She drives carefully.
• heavy – heavily, happy – happily, tragic – tragically
• He speaks English well. – He speaks English well.
• She works hard. – She works hard. (hardly = hardly at all!)

❌ He plays good. She runs fastly. ✅ He plays well. She runs fast.

📖 More: adverb (adverb) – description

One-syllable and two-syllable adjectives ending in -y take the endings -er / -est (fast – faster – the fastest, happy – happier – the happiest). For longer adjectives, we use more / the most or less / the least. Some adjectives are irregularly compared.

❌ more bigger, gooder, the most fastest ✅ bigger, better, the fastest

📖 More: adjective (adjective) – description

The comparative is used to compare two people, things, or groups – after it stands than. The superlative is used to indicate „the most” in a group – before it stands the or a possessive adjective, and after it often stands in (in place, group) or of (among).

• Peter is taller than Kasia. – Peter is taller than Kasia.
• Bikes are less expensive than cars. – Bikes are cheaper (less expensive) than cars.
• Peter is the tallest boy in the class. – Peter is the tallest boy in the class.
• Tom is my oldest friend. – Tom is my oldest friend.
• It was the best day of my life. – It was the best day of my life.

❌ She is taller that me. He is the best of the class. ✅ She is taller than me. He is the best in the class.

As + adjective + as means “the same… as”, and not as/so + adjective + as – “not as… as”. The adjective remains in the positive degree.

• Tom is as tall as his father. – Tom is as tall as his father.
• This test isn’t as difficult as the last one. – This test is not as difficult as the previous one.
• Come as soon as possible. – Come as soon as possible.

❌ as taller as ✅ as tall as

Too (too) we place before the adjective or adverb (too cold), and enough (enough) – after the adjective (old enough), but before the noun (enough money).

• It’s too cold to swim. – It is too cold to swim.
• He isn’t old enough to drive. – He is not old enough to drive.
• We don’t have enough time. – We do not have enough time.

❌ enough old ✅ old enough

Reflexive pronouns (myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves) are used when the subject and the object are the same person (I hurt myself) or to emphasize that someone did something alone (I did it myself).

• Be careful! Don’t cut yourself. – Be careful! Don’t cut yourself.
• They painted the house themselves. – They painted the house themselves.
• She lives by herself. – She lives by herself.

❌ I feel myself good. I wash myself every morning. ✅ I feel good. I wash every morning. – not every Polish „się” is a reflexive pronoun (feel, relax, meet, wash, dress, shave usually without it).

Must and have to mean „to have to”: must expresses necessity resulting from the speaker’s belief, while have to – from external rules. Mustn’t means prohibition (not allowed), and don’t have to – lack of necessity (not required). Must has one form and only present tense; in other tenses we use have to.

Questions: Must I go? or (more often) Do I have to go? Did you have to pay?

❌ I musted go. She must to go. You mustn’t come – it’s optional. ✅ I had to go. She must go. You don’t have to come.

Should (I should, you should) expresses advice or opinion about what is right. It has one form for all persons, followed by the infinitive without to. The negation is shouldn’t, and the question is: Should + person + infinitive?

• You should see a doctor. – You should go to the doctor.
• She shouldn’t eat so many sweets. – She shouldn’t eat so many sweets.
• What should I do? – What should I do?

For the past, we say should have done – see part B2.

❌ You should to rest. He shoulds go. ✅ You should rest. He should go.

Be going to + infinitive expresses intentions and plans made just before speaking and predictions based on what we see or know. We conjugate be (am/is/are going to).

person + am/is/are going to + infinitive · question: Am/Is/Are + person + going to + infinitive?

• I’m going to visit my friend next weekend. – I intend to visit my friend next weekend.
• Look at those clouds! It’s going to rain. – Look at the clouds! It will rain.
• Are you going to study tonight? – Are you going to study tonight?
• I was going to call you. – I was going to call you (intention in the past).

❌ I going to buy a bike. ✅ I’m going to buy a bike.

Will + infinitive expresses decisions made at the moment of speaking, predictions based on opinion (I think, probably, I’m sure), promises, offers, requests, and threats, as well as facts in the future.

• It’s cold. I’ll close the window. – It’s cold. I will close the window (decision now).
• I think our team will win. – I think our team will win (opinion).
• I’ll help you, I promise. – I will help you, I promise.
• Will you open the door, please? – Will you open the door? (request)
• He will be 15 next year. – Next year he will turn 15 (fact).

📖 More: Future Simple – description of the tense

Future Simple is formed with will and the infinitive without to – the form is the same for all persons. The negation is will not (won’t), and we form a question by placing will before the subject.

❌ I will to help you. She wills come. ✅ I will help you. She will come.

In future time clauses after when, before, after, until, as soon as we use the Present Simple (or Present Perfect) tense, not will. Will only appears in the main clause.

• I’ll call you when I get home. – I’ll call you when I get home.
• We’ll start as soon as everybody arrives. – We’ll start as soon as everybody arrives.
• You can’t go out until you have finished your homework. – You can’t go out until you have finished your homework.

❌ When I will finish school, I will travel. ✅ When I finish school, I will travel.

Zero Conditional describes general truths and constant dependencies: if the condition is met, the result always follows. In both parts of the sentence, we use Present Simple.

If + Present Simple, Present Simple

• If you heat ice, it melts. – If you heat ice, it melts.
• If I drink coffee late, I can’t sleep. – If I drink coffee late, I can’t sleep.

In Zero Conditional, if can be replaced with when without changing the meaning.

First Conditional describes real situations in the future. After if, we use Present Simple, and in the main clause will (or can, may, might, imperative).

If + Present Simple, will + infinitive

• If it rains, we will stay at home. – If it rains, we will stay at home.
• If you see Ann, tell her to call me. – If you see Ann, tell her to call me.
• We’ll miss the bus if we don’t hurry. – We’ll miss the bus if we don’t hurry.

❌ If it will rain… ✅ If it rains…

✍️ Practice: exercises from the first conditional · 📖 First Conditional – description

The III form of regular verbs is the same as the II – we add -ed (watch – watched – watched). The III forms of irregular verbs must be learned from the third column of the table (go – went – gone). We use the III form in Perfect tenses and in the passive voice.

📋 Full list of irregular verbs

Present Perfect connects the past with the present. It describes actions that started in the past and continue to the present, completed actions without a specified time, whose effects are visible now, actions completed just now, and life experiences.

• I have studied English for five years. – I have been learning English for five years (it continues to the present).
• I have lost my keys. – I have lost my keys (and I still don’t have them).
• I’ve just eaten. – I have just eaten.
• She has been to England. – She has been to England (experience, we don’t say when).
• Piotrek has never drunk goat’s milk. – Piotrek has never drunk goat’s milk.

📖 More: Present Perfect – description of the tense

We form Present Perfect with have/has and the III form of the verb (has in the 3rd person singular). The negation is haven’t/hasn’t + III form, and we form a question by placing have/has before the subject.

❌ She have finished. Have you went there? ✅ She has finished. Have you been there?

✍️ Practice: Present Perfect exercises · mixed tense exercises

Just (just) and already (already) are placed between have/has and the III form in affirmative sentences; yet is placed at the end of questions (yet?) and negations (not yet); ever (ever) appears in questions, and never (never) in sentences about lack of experience.

❌ I have yet finished. ✅ I have already finished. – yet does not occur in affirmative sentences in the meaning of „already”.

For indicates how long something has been happening (time period: for two hours, for ten years), while since indicates from when (point in time: since Monday, since 2020). Both words are most often combined with Perfect tenses.

• I have lived here for five years. – I have lived here for five years.
• I have lived here since 2021. – I have lived here since 2021.
• She has worked here since she left school. – She has worked here since she finished school.

❌ I live here since 2021. ✅ I have lived here since 2021. – in Polish we say in the present tense, in English Present Perfect is needed.

Past Simple describes an action completed at a specific time in the past (yesterday, in 2019, last week), while Present Perfect describes an action whose time is not specified or whose result or duration connects with the present.

❌ I have seen him yesterday. ✅ I saw him yesterday. – past indicators (yesterday, ago, last…) require Past Simple.

✍️ Practice: Present Perfect vs Past Simple exercises

When who or what asks about the performer of the action (subject), we do not use do/does/did and maintain the structure of a declarative sentence (Who broke the window?). When we ask about the recipient of the action (object), we use the regular question structure with the operator (What did he break?).

❌ Who did call you? What did happen? ✅ Who called you? What happened?

It depends on the verb. After enjoy, like, love, hate, finish, mind, avoid, can’t stand and after prepositions we use the -ing form, and after want, decide, hope, plan, learn, need, would like – to + infinitive.

• She is good at drawing. – after the preposition always -ing.
• Swimming is healthy. – the -ing form as the subject of the sentence.

About verbs that change meaning (remember, stop, try), you will read in part B2.

Used to + infinitive describes past habits and states that are no longer current – corresponds to the Polish „once (I did something).”

person + used to + infinitive · negation: didn’t use to · question: Did + person + use to…?

• I used to play the guitar. – I used to play the guitar.
• There used to be a cinema here. – There used to be a cinema here.
• Did you use to have long hair? – Did you ever have long hair?

❌ I didn’t used to… ✅ I didn’t use to… – after did/didn’t we write use without -d.

A question tag is a short question at the end of a sentence (right?, isn’t it?). We repeat the operator from the sentence (or do/does/did) and the personal pronoun; after an affirmative sentence, the tag is negative, and after a negative one – affirmative.

• You’re tired, aren’t you? – You are tired, right?
• She likes jazz, doesn’t she?
• They didn’t come, did they?
• You can swim, can’t you?

Exceptions: I’m late, aren’t I? · Let’s go, shall we? · Open the window, will you? · Nobody called, did they?

May, might, and could + infinitive mean that something is possible now or in the future (maybe…). Might usually expresses slightly less certainty than may.

• It may rain later. – It may rain later.
• She might be at home. – She might be at home.
• We could go to the cinema. – We could go to the cinema (suggestion).
• I may not come tomorrow. – I may not come tomorrow.

❌ Maybe it will may rain. ✅ It may rain. / Maybe it will rain.

Can means ability or possibility in the present, could – general ability in the past, and be able to replaces can in tenses where can does not occur (will be able to, have been able to) and describes a single achievement in the past (was able to / managed to).

• I could swim when I was five. – I could swim when I was five (general ability).
• The sea was rough, but we were able to reach the shore. – We managed to reach (one-time success).
• I’ll be able to help you tomorrow. – I will be able to help you tomorrow.
• I haven’t been able to sleep lately. – I haven’t been able to sleep lately.

❌ I will can help you. ✅ I will be able to help you.

We use the before specific things, already known to the interlocutor or unique (the sun). We do not use an article when we speak generally about plural nouns or uncountable nouns (Dogs are friendly), before most names of countries, cities, meals, and sports.

• I bought a book. The book is very interesting. – first time: a, then: the.
• The moon, the internet, the Thames, the USA, the Alps – unique things, rivers, countries with a name in plural or with the word “States/Kingdom”, mountain ranges.
• I love music. Cats sleep a lot. We have lunch at 1. She plays tennis. – without the article.
• She plays the piano. – musical instruments with the.

❌ The life is beautiful. ✅ Life is beautiful. – we talk about general concepts without the.

📖 More: determiners (determiners) – description

Past Perfect (had + III form) describes an action that happened before another action in the past – it is the “past of the past”.

person + had + III form · negation: hadn’t + III form · question: Had + person + III form?

• When we arrived, the film had already started. – When we arrived, the film had already started (it started earlier).
• She was nervous because she hadn’t flown before. – She was nervous because she hadn’t flown before.
• Had you met him before the party? – Had you met him before the party?

Compare: When I arrived, she left. (she left when I arrived) / When I arrived, she had left. (she was already gone).

📖 More: Past Perfect – description of the tense

Relative pronouns connect sentences and add information about a noun: who – about people, which – about things and animals, that – about people and things, where – about places, whose – about possession (whose).

• The woman who lives next door is a doctor. – The woman who lives next door is a doctor.
• This is the phone which/that I bought. – This is the phone that I bought.
• That’s the hotel where we stayed. – That’s the hotel where we stayed.
• I have a friend whose father is a pilot. – I have a friend whose father is a pilot.

When the pronoun is an object, it can be omitted: This is the phone (that) I bought.

In the active voice, the subject performs the action (A cat drinks milk), while in the passive voice, the action is performed on the subject (Milk is drunk by the cat). We use the passive voice when the doer is unknown or unimportant, when the action itself is more important, and in formal style.

• My bike was stolen. – My bike was stolen (we don’t know who).
• English is spoken all over the world. – In English, it is spoken all over the world.
• The Mona Lisa was painted by Leonardo da Vinci. – The performer (when important) is added after by.

The passive voice is formed with the appropriate form of be and the third form of the verb – only the form of be changes, depending on the tense. In the negative, not is placed after the first auxiliary verb, and in the question, that word is moved before the subject.

subject + be (in the appropriate tense) + third form (+ by + performer)

❌ The house has been not sold. ✅ The house has not been sold. – not stands after the first auxiliary verb.

Passive voice in other tenses and with two objects – see part B1.

The rule does not change: the appropriate form of be + III form. In the Past Continuous tense, we use was/were being, in the Past Perfect had been, in the Future Perfect will have been. With verbs that have two objects (give, send, show, offer), the subject of the passive voice is usually the person.

• They gave me a prize. → I was given a prize. – I received a prize (more common version).
• → A prize was given to me. – correct version, but rarer.

Present Perfect Continuous (have/has been + -ing) describes an action that started in the past and continues to the present or has just finished and its effects are visible. It emphasizes the duration of the action.

person + have/has been + verb with -ing · negation: haven’t/hasn’t been + -ing · question: Have/Has + person + been + -ing?

• I’ve been learning English for six years. – I have been learning English for six years.
• You look tired. Have you been running? – You look tired. Have you been running?
• How long has it been raining? – How long has it been raining?

📖 More: Present Perfect Continuous – description of the tense

Present Perfect emphasizes the result and answers the question „how much?” or „what has been done?”, while Present Perfect Continuous emphasizes the action itself and its duration, answering the question „how long?”.

❌ I’ve been knowing her for years. ✅ I’ve known her for years. – stative verbs remain in Present Perfect.

Future Continuous (will be + -ing) describes an action that will be ongoing at a specific moment in the future, as well as actions that will take place in the natural course of events. We also use it in polite questions about plans.

person + will be + verb with -ing

• This time tomorrow I’ll be lying on the beach. – Tomorrow at this time I will be lying on the beach.
• Don’t call at 8 – we’ll be having dinner. – Don’t call at 8 – we will be having dinner.
• Will you be using the car tonight? – Will you be using the car tonight? (polite question)

📖 More: Future Continuous – description of the tense

Will expresses spontaneous decisions, promises, and opinions about the future; be going to – intentions and predictions based on evidence; Present Continuous – established plans with a specific time and place; Present Simple – timetables and schedules.

Second Conditional describes unreal or unlikely situations in the present or future. After if we use Past Simple, and in the main clause would + infinitive.

If + Past Simple, would + infinitive

• If I had more money, I would buy a house. – If I had more money, I would buy a house.
• If I were you, I wouldn’t do that. – If I were you, I wouldn’t do that.
• What would you do if you won the lottery? – What would you do if you won the lottery?

After if with the verb be in formal style, we use were for all persons (If she were here…).

❌ If I would have time, I would help you. ✅ If I had time, I would help you.

Third Conditional describes unreal situations in the past – we consider what would have happened if the past had been different. After if we use Past Perfect, and in the main clause would have + III form.

If + Past Perfect, would have + III form

• If I had studied, I would have passed the exam. – If I had studied, I would have passed the exam.
• If you hadn’t reminded me, I would have forgotten. – If you hadn’t reminded me, I would have forgotten.
• She could have won if she had trained more. – She could have won if she had trained more.

❌ If I would have known… ✅ If I had known…

When the reporting verb is in the past tense (said, told), we backshift the tense by one step, change pronouns and time and place expressions (now → then, tomorrow → the next day, here → there).

Remember: say (that)… without a person, but tell somebody (that)… – with a person.

❌ She said me that… ✅ She told me that… / She said that…

In dependent questions, we use the word order of a declarative sentence (without do/does/did) and do not put a question mark; general questions are introduced by if/whether. Commands and requests are transformed into tell/ask + person + (not) to + infinitive.

• „Where do you live?” → She asked me where I lived.
• „Are you hungry?” → He asked if/whether I was hungry.
• „Close the door.” → She told me to close the door.
• „Don’t be late.” → He told us not to be late.

❌ She asked me where did I live. ✅ She asked me where I lived.

✍️ Practice in transformations: extended matura – sentence transformations

Although / even though / though connect two sentences (after them, the subject and predicate). Despite and in spite of are prepositions – after them, a noun, -ing form, or the fact that. However starts a new sentence and is separated by a comma.

• Although it was raining, we went out. – Although it was raining, we went out.
• Despite the rain, we went out. – Despite the rain, we went out.
• In spite of feeling tired, she kept working. – In spite of feeling tired, she kept working.
• It was raining. However, we went out. – It was raining. However, we went out.

❌ Despite of the rain… ✅ Despite the rain… / In spite of the rain… · ❌ Despite it was raining… ✅ Despite the fact that it was raining…

Purpose is expressed by to / in order to / so as to + infinitive (when the subject is the same) or so that + can/could/will/would (especially when the subject changes). Negative purpose: in order not to, so as not to.

• I went to the shop to buy bread. – I went to the shop to buy bread.
• She whispered so as not to wake the baby. – She whispered so as not to wake the baby.
• I’ll leave the key so that you can get in. – I’ll leave the key so that you can get in.

❌ I came here for learning English. ✅ I came here to learn English.

So is placed before an adjective or adverb (so hot, so quickly) and before much/many/few/little. Such (a/an) is placed before a noun with or without an adjective (such a nice day, such people). Both constructions can introduce a result: so/such … that.

• The film was so boring that I fell asleep. – The film was so boring that I fell asleep.
• It was such a boring film that I fell asleep. – It was such a boring film that I fell asleep.
• There were so many people! – There were so many people!

❌ It was so a nice day. ✅ It was such a nice day.

Past Perfect Continuous (had been + -ing) describes an action that was ongoing for some time before another moment in the past – it is “Present Perfect Continuous shifted to the past”.

person + had been + verb with -ing

• We had been waiting for an hour when the bus finally came. – We had been waiting for an hour when the bus finally came.
• His eyes were red because he had been crying. – His eyes were red because he had been crying.

Future Perfect (will have + III form) describes an action that will be completed before a specified moment in the future. Typical indicators are by (to, before), by then, by the time.

person + will have + III form · Future Perfect Continuous: will have been + -ing

• I will have finished the project by Friday. – I will finish the project by Friday.
• By the time you arrive, we will have eaten. – By the time you arrive, we will have eaten.
• In June I will have been working here for ten years. – In June it will be ten years since I have been working here.

📖 More: Future Perfect – description of the tense

Unless means „if not / unless”, as long as and provided (that) – „provided that”, and in case – „in case”. After all these conjunctions, when talking about the future, we use Present Simple.

• You’ll fail unless you study. = You’ll fail if you don’t study. – You will fail if you do not study.
• You can borrow my car as long as you drive carefully. – You can borrow the car, provided that you drive carefully.
• Take an umbrella in case it rains. – Take an umbrella in case it rains.

❌ Unless you don’t hurry, you’ll be late. ✅ Unless you hurry, you’ll be late. – unless already contains a negation.

Instead of say and tell in reported speech, we use verbs that precisely convey the speaker’s intention (suggest, offer, refuse, warn, accuse). Each of them has a fixed construction that needs to be memorized.

❌ He suggested me to go. ✅ He suggested going. / He suggested (that) I (should) go.

Have/get + complement + III form means that someone else is doing a service for us (we are commissioning something) or that something unpleasant has happened to us. Get is more colloquial.

person + have/get (in the appropriate tense) + something + III form

• I had my hair cut yesterday. – I had my hair cut (at the hairdresser’s).
• We’re having our kitchen painted. – They are painting our kitchen.
• She had her bag stolen. – Her bag was stolen.
• You should get your eyes tested. – You should have your eyesight checked.

❌ I cut my hair at the hairdresser’s. (I cut it myself) ✅ I had my hair cut.

✍️ Practice: B2 First – key word transformations (Part 4)

A defining clause indicates who or what is being referred to – without it, the sentence loses its meaning; we do not use commas and we can use that. A non-defining clause adds additional information – we separate it with commas, do not use that, and we cannot omit the pronoun.

• The students who passed got a certificate. – Only those who passed received a certificate (defining).
• The students, who passed, got a certificate. – All students passed and received a certificate (non-defining).
• My brother, who lives in Oslo, is an engineer. – My brother, who lives in Oslo, is an engineer.

❌ Warsaw, that is the capital of Poland, … ✅ Warsaw, which is the capital of Poland, …

Must be means „it must be” (we are almost sure), can’t be – „it can’t be”, and might/may/could be – „it might be”. These are deduction verbs, not obligation.

• She hasn’t eaten all day. She must be hungry. – She must be hungry.
• That can’t be Tom – he’s in Spain. – That can’t be Tom.
• He isn’t answering. He might be asleep. – He might be asleep.
• They must be having a party. – They must be having a party (now).

❌ He mustn’t be at home. (in the sense of assumption) ✅ He can’t be at home.

We infer about the past by adding have + III form: must have done (he must have done it), can’t/couldn’t have done (he can’t have done it), might/may/could have done (he might have done it).

modal verb + have + III form

• The streets are wet. It must have rained. – It must have rained.
• She can’t have seen us – she didn’t wave. – She can’t have seen us.
• I might have left my phone in the car. – I might have left my phone in the car.

✍️ Practice: C1 Advanced – key word transformations (Part 4)

Should have + III form expresses regret or criticism (I should have, but I didn’t). Needn’t have + III form means that we did something unnecessarily, and didn’t need to – that something was not necessary (usually we didn’t do it).

• You should have told me earlier. – You should have told me earlier.
• I shouldn’t have eaten so much. – I shouldn’t have eaten so much.
• I needn’t have taken an umbrella – it didn’t rain. – I needn’t have taken an umbrella – it didn’t rain.
• I didn’t need to take an umbrella, so I left it at home. – I didn’t need to take an umbrella (and I didn’t take it).

I wish / If only + Past Simple expresses regret about the present, + Past Perfect – regret about the past, and + would – irritation at someone else’s behavior or a desire for change in the future.

❌ I wish I would be taller. ✅ I wish I were/was taller. – wish + would does not refer to itself.

Had better + infinitive is a strong advice or warning (you better do), would rather + infinitive – preference (I would prefer), and it’s time + Past Simple – a statement that it’s high time for someone to do something.

• You’d better hurry or you’ll miss the train. – You better hurry.
• You’d better not tell him. – You better not tell him.
• I’d rather stay at home tonight. – I would prefer to stay at home tonight.
• I’d rather you didn’t smoke here. – I would prefer that you didn’t smoke here (another person → Past Simple).
• It’s time we went home. – It’s time for us to go home.

❌ You had better to go. ✅ You had better go.

Remember, forget, regret, stop, try, go on and mean change meaning: the -ing form usually refers to an earlier action or the action itself, and to + infinitive – to a later action or purpose.

Used to + infinitive indicates a past habit or state; be used to + -ing means „to be accustomed to,” and get used to + -ing – „to get accustomed to.” Would + infinitive also describes repeated actions in the past, but not states.

• I used to live in Gdańsk. – I used to live in Gdańsk.
• I’m used to getting up early. – I am used to getting up early.
• I’m getting used to driving on the left. – I am getting used to driving on the left.
• Every summer we would go to the lake. – Every summer we went to the lake.

❌ I’m used to get up early. ✅ I’m used to getting up early. · ❌ I would have a dog. (state) ✅ I used to have a dog.

Opinion adjectives are placed before descriptive adjectives, and these are arranged in the order: size – age – shape – color – origin – material – purpose.

opinion → size → age → shape → color → origin → material → purpose + noun

• a lovely little old house – a lovely little old house
• a big round wooden table – a big round wooden table
• an expensive Italian leather bag – an expensive Italian leather bag

📖 More: adjective (przymiotnik) – description

The comparative degree is strengthened by the words much, far, a lot, even, a bit (much bigger, far more expensive). The construction the + comparative degree…, the + comparative degree… means „the more…, the more…”.

• This phone is far more expensive than mine. – This phone is far more expensive than mine.
• The more you practise, the better you get. – The more you practise, the better you get.
• The sooner, the better. – The sooner, the better.
• It’s getting colder and colder. – It’s getting colder and colder.

❌ very bigger ✅ much bigger

Mixed conditionals combine different time frames: an unreal condition in the past with an effect in the present (If + Past Perfect, would + infinitive) or an unreal permanent condition in the present with an effect in the past (If + Past Simple, would have + III form).

In formal style, we omit if and place the operator before the subject: Should + subject (First Conditional), Were + subject + to/adjective (Second Conditional), Had + subject + III form (Third Conditional). Negation: Had I not…, Were it not for…

• Should you need any help, please contact us. = If you need… – If you needed help, please contact us.
• Were I in your position, I would resign. = If I were… – If I were in your position, I would resign.
• Were the company to collapse, thousands would lose their jobs. – If the company collapsed…
• Had I known, I would have come earlier. = If I had known… – If I had known, I would have come earlier.
• Had it not been for your help, we would have failed. – If it had not been for your help, we would have failed.

❌ Hadn’t I known… ✅ Had I not known… – In conditional inversion, we do not use contracted forms with not.

✍️ Practice: C1 Advanced Use of English Part 4

When for emphasis we start a sentence with a negative or limiting expression (never, rarely, seldom, not only, no sooner, hardly, little, only when, under no circumstances), we use the question order: operator (do/does/did, have, be, modal) + subject + verb.

❌ Only when I got home I realised… ✅ Only when I got home did I realise… – inversion occurs in the main clause, not after only when.

✍️ Practice: bilingual matura – paraphrase · sentence transformations

Cleft sentences break a sentence into two parts to emphasize one element. The most common patterns are It is/was + emphasized element + that/who… and What + subject + verb + is/was + emphasized element.

• Tom broke the window. → It was Tom who broke the window. – It was Tom who broke the window (and not someone else).
• It wasn’t until midnight that they arrived. – They arrived only at midnight.
• What I need is a long holiday. – What I need is a long holiday.
• What she did was (to) call the police. – What she did was to call the police.
• All I want is some peace and quiet. – I just want some peace.
• The reason why I left was that I was bored. – I left because I was bored.

The subjunctive mood is the base form of the verb (without -s, without do) used in formal style after verbs and expressions of demand, suggestion, or necessity: suggest, recommend, insist, demand, propose, it is essential/vital/important that.

suggest / insist / demand / it is essential + that + subject + base form (be, go, not be)

• The doctor recommended that he stop smoking. – The doctor recommended that he quit smoking (not: stops).
• It is essential that every student be present. – It is necessary that every student be present.
• She insisted that he not tell anyone. – She insisted that he not tell anyone.

In British English, a common version is with should: The doctor recommended that he should stop smoking. Established phrases with the subjunctive mood: God save the King, be that as it may, so be it, if need be.

After as if / as though, suppose / supposing, it’s (high/about) time, would rather and I wish the past form (unreal past) does not indicate the past, but unreality or distance: Past Simple – in reference to the present, Past Perfect – to the past.

• He talks as if he knew everything. – He talks as if he knew everything (but he doesn’t).
• She looked as though she had seen a ghost. – She looked as if she had seen a ghost.
• Suppose you lost your job – what would you do? – Suppose you lose your job…
• It’s high time the government took action. – It’s high time the government took action.
• I’d rather you hadn’t invited him. – I would prefer that you hadn’t invited him.

Note: after as if you can also use the present tense when the situation is probably true: It looks as if it’s going to rain.

Participle clauses shorten subordinate clauses: the active participle (-ing) replaces the sentence in the active voice, the passive participle (III form) – in the passive voice, and having + III form emphasizes that the action happened earlier. The subject of both parts of the sentence must be the same.

• Walking down the street, I met an old friend. = While I was walking… – Walking down the street, I met an old friend.
• Having finished the report, she went home. = After she had finished… – Having finished the report, she went home.
• Built in 1890, the bridge is still in use. = The bridge, which was built… – Built in 1890, the bridge is still in use.
• Not knowing what to say, he remained silent. – Not knowing what to say, he remained silent.
• Having been warned, they took extra care. – Having been warned, they took extra care.

❌ Walking down the street, the rain started. (dangling participle – the rain did not walk down the street) ✅ As I was walking down the street, it started to rain.

With the verbs say, believe, think, know, report, expect, consider, claim we can build a passive voice in two ways: It + is said + that + sentence or subject + is said + to + infinitive. For the earlier action, we use to have + III form, and for the ongoing action – to be + -ing.

Similarly with there: There are thought to be over 1,000 species. – It is believed that there are over 1000 species.

Be about to means „something is about to happen”, be on the verge/point of + -ing – „to be on the verge of”, be due to – „to have something scheduled for a specific time”, and be to + infinitive is for formal arrangements or commands. The future seen from the perspective of the past is expressed by was going to, would, was about to, was to.

• Hurry up – the film is about to start. – Hurry up, the film is about to start.
• The company is on the verge of collapsing. – The company is on the verge of collapsing.
• The plane is due to land at 6:40. – The plane is due to land at 6:40.
• The Prime Minister is to visit Japan next month. – The Prime Minister is to visit Japan next month.
• You are not to leave this room. – You are not to leave this room.
• I was going to call you, but I forgot. – I was going to call you, but I forgot.
• Little did they know that they would never meet again. – Little did they know that they would never meet again.

In formal style, the preposition is placed before the pronoun (the person to whom…, the extent to which…). Which after a comma can refer to the entire sentence, whereby means „thanks to which / within which”, and relative clauses can be shortened to participles.

• The person to whom I spoke was very helpful. = The person (who) I spoke to… (informal style)
• He failed the exam, which surprised everyone. – He failed the exam, which surprised everyone.
• They introduced a system whereby employees can work from home. – They introduced a system whereby employees can work from home.
• I have two brothers, both of whom are lawyers. – I have two brothers, both of whom are lawyers.
• The man sitting next to me was asleep. = The man who was sitting… (shortened sentence)
• She was the first woman to win the prize. – She was the first woman to win the prize.

❌ the person to who I spoke ✅ the person to whom I spoke · ❌ the house in that I live ✅ the house in which I live

To avoid repetitions, we replace parts of the sentence with the words so and not (after think, hope, expect, be afraid), do/do so (instead of the verb), one/ones (instead of a countable noun) or omit repeating elements (ellipsis).

• „Will it rain?” – „I hope not.” / „I think so.” – I hope not. / I think so.
• She asked me to leave, and I did so immediately. – She asked me to leave, and I did so immediately.
• I don’t like the red shoes, but I like the black ones.
• He said he would finish it, and he has. – He said that he would finish, and he finished.
• I’d love to come, but I can’t (come). · You can go if you want to.

❌ I don’t hope so. ✅ I hope not.

In affirmative sentences in Present Simple and Past Simple, we can add emphasized do/does/did before the verb to highlight contrast or sincerity. Emphasis is also expressed by reinforcing expressions (the very, whatsoever, at all, on earth/ever in questions) and moving an element to the beginning of the sentence (fronting).

• I do like your dress! – I really like your dress!
• He says I didn’t call, but I did call him. – But I called him!
• Do sit down. – Please, do sit down (polite encouragement).
• That’s the very thing I was looking for. – That’s exactly what I was looking for.
• There is no evidence whatsoever. – There is absolutely no evidence.
• What on earth are you doing? – What are you doing, for heaven’s sake?
• Strange as it may seem, I enjoyed it. – Although it may seem strange, I enjoyed it.

Nominalization is the replacement of verbs and adjectives with nouns (decide → decision, important → importance). It makes the text sound more formal, concise, and objective – which is why it is valued in essays and reports at the C1 level.

• The prices increased rapidly, which worried people. → The rapid increase in prices caused widespread concern.
• Because they didn’t invest enough… → Due to a lack of investment…
• When the train arrived… → On the train’s arrival…

✍️ Practice word formation: extended matura – word formation · C1 Advanced Use of English Part 3

Hedging is the softening of the definiteness of statements, typical of academic style. We use the verbs seem/appear/tend + to + infinitive, the expressions be likely/unlikely/bound to, modal verbs may/might/could, and the adverbs arguably, presumably, to some extent.

• The results seem to suggest that… – The results seem to indicate that…
• He appears to have left early. – It looks like he left early.
• Teenagers tend to sleep longer at weekends. – Teenagers usually sleep longer on weekends.
• Prices are likely to rise. – Prices are likely to rise. · It’s bound to happen. – It will definitely happen.
• This is arguably the best solution. – It can be considered the best solution.

All stands before the article (all the day), whole – after it (the whole day). Each emphasizes individual elements (also two), every – the group as a whole (three or more). Either means „one of two / whichever”, neither – „none of two”, and none – „none” of three or more.

• the whole book = all the book · the whole story – but not with uncountable nouns: all the money (❌ the whole money)
• She had a ring on each hand. – (two hands – each separately)
• Every student must take the test. – Every student must take the test.
• You can take either road. – You can take either of the two roads.
• Neither of my parents speaks Spanish. – Neither of my parents speaks Spanish.
• None of the five candidates was suitable. – None of the five candidates was suitable.

❌ Neither of them didn’t come. ✅ Neither of them came. – neither already has a negative meaning.

✍️ Practice functional words: C1 Advanced Use of English Part 2 (open cloze)